A CRITICAL BIBLIOGRAPHY OF MEXICAN
AMERICAN PROVERBS
[Author's note:
This bibliography, which was originally published along
with the article Proverbs in Mexican American
Tradition (Aztlán: International Journal of
Chicano Studies Research 13 [1982]: 43-70 and
71-80), has been updated to include new editions or
reprints as well as three new sources, one of them a
major compilation (Glazer's Dictionary of Mexican
American Proverbs, listed under Texas).]
The following bibliography surveys the
compilations of Mexican American proverbs published to date
and describes each entry in terms of the type and quantity
of material included; presence or absence of interpretative
comments or translations; sources; organization; and
accuracy of presentation. The relative importance of each of
these aspects will naturally depend on why the compilation
is being consulted and the background of the reader. To
someone in quest of an individual text, for example, a lack
of any systematic arrangement of material will be a more
serious drawback than for one who merely wishes to derive a
general notion of the proverb repertoire of a given
community. Also, a reader thoroughly familiar with the
Spanish language will not be hampered by defective
translations or errors of orthography, e.g., enbilla for envía (Chávez, p.43) or acarella for acarrea (p. 48) that might
mislead or confuse a reader who knows little or no Spanish
and must depend on translations or the aid of a dictionary
for his understanding of a text. By characterizing each
entry in regard to all five components I hope to provide an
idea of its potential usefulness for whatever purpose the
individual reader may have in mind.
The category of interpretive comments
merits some further explanation. A mere listing of proverb
texts, without definition or explanation (as in
Vásquez, Campa, and others) presupposes on the part
of the reader not only a knowledge of the Spanish language
but also a familiarity with the proverbs as well, so that
explanation is superfluous, or a purpose of consultation to
which meaning is irrelevant. While such compilations have
their uses, their limitations are obvious. Much more useful
are those compilations that include definitions or
explanations, whether in Spanish or English, so that the
reader is afforded at least a general notion of the kinds of
situations where a given proverb could apply. To be sure,
the provision of a single definition or concise statement of
meaning is often a difficult task. Many, even most,
proverbs--particularly metaphorical proverbs--have a wide
range of meanings, varying from community to community, from
individual to individual, from context to context. Still, an
attempt should be made on the part of the compiler to offer
the reader at least a general "base meaning," a kind of
consensus as to what the saying usually expresses. Variant
and even contradictory meanings may well exist and may be
equally valid if they result in successful communication
between speaker and listener, but a
"definition"--particularly a single definition--should be
more broadly representative or should have its contextual
limits clearly indicated. Where definitions differ
frequently and markedly from those generally found in
published collections or in the field, I have suggested
caution in consultation, not because such interpretations
are necessarily "wrong," but because they are
atypical.
The practice of citing "equivalent"
English proverbs as substitutes for definitions or
interpretations is a risky one. There are proverbs in the
two languages whose ranges of meaning overlap; proverbs,
after all, deal with recurring situations and circumstances
common to human society and such resemblances are natural
and inevitable. Nevertheless, total equivalence of meaning,
tone, and appropriateness to a given context is rare indeed.
It might, for example, be possible to envision a situation
in which Al que no habla Dios no lo oye would be used
in Spanish and Faint heart never won fair lady in
English (Galván, p. 124), but the contextual range of
the English is so much more limited and its faintly archaic,
almost chivalric tone so different from the Spanish that one
is hard put to conceive of such a circumstance. Despite a
certain resemblance based on the fact that both proverbs
recommend assertiveness as a means of achieving an end, they
are by no means synonymous or "equivalent." Similarly, Cuando uno anda de malas, hasta los perros lo mean and When it rains, it pours (Galván, p. 126)
share a basic reference to compounded misfortune, but the
imagery of the Spanish saying, with its use of a word
(mear, to piss) that for many speakers is socially
unacceptable, limits its contextual range in comparison with
the more neutrally worded English proverb. Even in cases
where a degree of genuine equivalency exists, as with
certain international proverbs, the reader may not be
familiar with the English saying or interpret it in the same
way that the compiler does. A rolling stone gathers no
moss with its two contradictory base meanings in current
Anglo-American tradition, is a case in point; if it is cited
as the "equivalent" of its linguistic counterpart Piedra
movediza no cría moho, the reader may derive an
impression of the Spanish saying that is contrary to the one
the compiler envisioned. The citing of "equivalents" is best
avoided, and if used at all, must be approached with caution
and as an adjunct to, not a replacement for, other types of
explanatory comments. (For discussion of proverb meaning in
relation to context, and a specific commentary on A
rolling stone gathers no moss, see the study by Barbara
Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, "Toward a Theory of Proverb Meaning," Proverbium [Helsinki], no. 22 [1973]:
821-827.)
The full text of this
article is published in De
Proverbio - Issue
2:1995, an
electronic book, available from amazon.com and other leading Internet booksellers.
The present bibliography includes only
sources that deal at least in substantial part with the
proverb proper, as distinct from phrases, idioms, vocabulary
items, and the like. A few minor references have been
omitted; these and other studies of more general aspects of
Mexican American or Chicano folk speech may be found in
Michael Heisley, An Annotated Bibliography of Chicano
Folklore from the Southwestern United States (Los
Angeles: University of California, Los Angeles, Center for
the Study of Comparative Folklore and Mythology, 1977),
pages 66-79. Finally, for anyone seriously concerned with
the study of Mexican American proverbs, an acquaintance with
the proverb lore of Mexico itself is indispensable. Space
will not permit a detailed listing of Mexican references,
but I shall mention briefly, at the end of the bibliography,
some of the most useful sources.
CALIFORNIA
"California Spanish Proverbs and
Adages." Western Folklore 3 (1944):
121-23.
According to an editor's
note, the 42 numbered items in this collection were taken
from an old notebook belonging to an elderly descendant
of "an illustrious Spanish family" in Southern
California. They are therefore believed to be
representative of the proverbs used in "cultivated
Spanish circles during the nineteenth century in
California" (p. 121). Items are listed in random order,
with a literal and accurate translation for each. A few
additional comments or definitions are provided in
footnotes.
MacArthur, Mildred Yorba. California-Spanish Proverbs. San Francisco: Colt
Press, 1944.
The compiler lists 332 items
recalled from her childhood as having been used by
grandparents, relatives, and friends who, like the
author, were members of "early California" families. Each
item has an English interpretation (not necessarily a
literal translation) and, occasionally, an explanation as
well. Translations and definitions are for the most part
accurate, but the non-Spanish-speaking reader has no way
of knowing which English versions are literal and which
are not. Lack of any systematic arrangement makes
consultation difficult.
Molera, Frances M. "California Spanish
Proverbs." Western Folklore 6 (1947):
65-67.
Each of the 34 numbered items
listed here is provided with an English translation
(usually literal) but no definition or interpretation.
Arrangement is random. The proverbs are described as
having been learned by the author from her grandmother
and other members of "an early generation."
Robe, Stanley, ed. Antología
del saber popular: A Selection fromVarious Genres of
Mexican Folklore Across Borders. Aztlán
Publications, Monograph 2. Los Angeles: University of
California, Los Angeles, Chicano Studies Center,
1971.
On pages 63-72 are listed 271
proverbs and phrases, without translation, grouped
principally by theme or, in a few instances, by type or
form. Arrangement is random under some categories,
roughly alphabetical under others. A few items have brief
explanations in Spanish. The five student collectors who
contributed the proverbs are named in the introduction
but not identified with individual items; one of the
collectors is described as having done field work in
Arizona. In contrast to the previous three items, this
compilation is taken directly from current oral tradition
and is therefore more representative of today's Mexican
American community in Southern California.
NEW MEXICO
Aranda, Charles. Dichos: Proverbs
and Sayings from the Spanish. Rev. ed. Santa Fe, New
Mexico: Sunstone Press, 1977.
A total of 348 proverbs and
phrases are arranged alphabetically by first word, with
English translations and, in many cases, interpretations.
Unfortunately both translations and interpretations are
sometimes questionable or even erroneous, and accuracy of
the transcription of the proverbs themselves leaves
something to be desired. No information is given as to
source; the classification as "New Mexican" is an
assumption based on the author's biography (on the back
cover), the place of publication, and the Library of
Congress subject heading assigned to the collection. The
booklet is unpaged.
Campa, Arthur O. Sayings and
Riddles in New Mexico. University of New Mexico
Bulletin, Language Series, vol. 6, no.2. Albuquerque:
University of New Mexico, 1937.
On pages 63-67 are listed 155
numbered items in random order; they are separated into
"refranes" and "adagios," but the
distinction is unclear. No translations or
interpretations are provided. The material is apparently
from oral sources and is described as a portion of the
material collected "from all parts of the state" by the
author and by Espinosa (p. 13; see the collection by
Espinosa described below). An introduction offers general
comments on proverbs and lists a few sayings that have a
"local" flavor (p. 13). The study is reprinted in Hispanic Folklore Studies of Arthur L. Campa, with
an introduction by Carlos E. Cortés, New York:
Arno Press, 1976.
The full text of this
article is published in De
Proverbio - Issue
2:1995, an
electronic book, available from amazon.com and other leading Internet booksellers.
TEXAS
Cerda, Gilberto, Berta Cabaza, and
Julieta Farias. El vocabulario español de
Texas. University of Texas Hispanic Studies, 5. Austin:
University of Texas Press, 1953; reprint 1970.
"Sección II: Modismos, locucionesyrefranes," pages 247-335, contains approximately
1,000 proverbs and phrases arranged alphabetically by key
word (usually the principal noun), with definitions in
Spanish and comparative annotations for Spain and various
regions of Spanish America. Material for the study as a
whole, presumably including proverbs, was collected in
eight counties in southern Texas. The attempt to link the
Mexican American material with the larger Hispanic
tradition by means of the annotations is both unique and
commendable.
Galván, Roberto A., and Richard
V. Teschner. El diccionario del español chicano /
The Dictionary of Chicano Spanish. Rev. ed. Silver
Springs, Maryland: Institute of Modern Languages, 1977. 2nd
[rev.] ed., revised and augmented by Roberto A.
Galván. Lincolnwood, Illinois: National Textbook Co.,
1995.
When initially published
(1975), this work was titled El diccionario
español de Texas; material has been
subsequently added using some sources from outside the
state of Texas (such as Aranda's collection for New
Mexico; see entry above), and the title has been modified
to reflect the authors' conclusion that the compilation
is now sufficiently representative of the Mexican
American speech of all regions to justify the change. On
pages 124-135 (pp. 214-232 of the second edition) are
some 230 proverbs and phrases arranged alphabetically by
first word with cross-references to other important words
within the saying. Sources for the dictionary as a whole,
and therefore presumably for the proverbs also, are a
combination of published material and field notes. Rather
than translations or definitions, the compilers have
provided for each item an English proverb or phrase
judged to be "equivalent," usually with little or no
textual relationship to the Spanish saying. The problems
of such a procedure are discussed in the introductory
comments to this bibliography.
Glazer, Mark, ed. Flour from
Another Sack and Other Proverbs, Folk Beliefs, Tales,
Riddles, and Recipes. Edinburg, Texas: Pan American
University, 1982. Rev. ed., Edinburg, Texas: University of
Texas-Pan American Press, 1994.
Fifty-seven proverbs arranged
by keyword are on pp. 41-60 of the original edition (pp.
29-45 of the revised edition, in which various
orthographic errors and a mistake in numbering have been
corrected). Each entry includes data on the informant, a
literal translation, and an interpretation or--of
particular interest--a description of a context in which
the informant recalls hearing the proverb used.
---, comp. A Dictionary of Mexican
American Proverbs. New York: Greenwood Press,
1987.
This compilation of nearly
1000 individual sayings is drawn from the Rio Grande
Folklore Archive of The University of Texas-Pan American
in Edinburg, Texas. The material appears to be largely if
not exclusively student-collected, using a standardized
form. Individual entries are arranged by keyword, usually
a noun or verb but with some significant departures
(e.g., sayings beginning with El que 'He who...'
are grouped together under El, while those
beginning with the alternative Quien are listed
under Quien). Each entry includes variants, a
translation or interpretation, and information on
contexts in which the saying may be or has been used.
Abundant annotations have been provided, using published
collections primarily from Spain, Mexico, and the
American Southwest. There are, unfortunately, numerous
errors of translation, explanation, orthography, and so
on, attributable in large part to the nature of the
collectanea, which seem to have been copied directly,
without editing, from the field records submitted by the
student-collectors. The reader familiar with the Spanish
language can easily identify and correct many of these
errors--some of which are significant, others not--but
for one who does not know Spanish or whose knowledge of
the language is limited, there are some serious pitfalls.
(The Dictionary has been reviewed by Timothy Murad
in Proverbium: Yearbook of International Proverb
Scholarship, 7 (1990), 261-263; and by the present
writer in Journal of American Folklore, 103
(1990), 115-117.)
Paredes, Américo. "Dichos," in Mexican-American Authors, edited by Américo
Paredes and Raymund Paredes. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1972.
Pp. 27-34.
A small but admirably
presented collection of forty-one "true proverbs" and
five comparisons, arranged alphabetically by first word,
with a literal translation and in most instances an
interpretative explanation for each. The material is
described as "collected by the author," presumably in
Texas where the author's family has lived since the
mid-eighteenth century (p. 27). A brief introduction
comments on stylistic features of dichos and on
distinctions between "true proverbs" and
"comparison."
Pérez, Soledad. "Mexican
Folklore from Austin, Texas," in The Healer of Los
Olmos, edited by Wilson Mathis Hudson. Texas Folklore
Society Publications, 24. Dallas: Southern Methodist
University Press, 1951. Pp. 71-127.
"Proverbs and Sayings," pages
118-125, presents 94 items arranged alphabetically by
first word with a literal translation and in many
instances an interpretation or English "equivalent" as
well. Seventy-two of the items are republished as "Dichos
from Austin," in Texas Folklore, edited by Mody C.
Boatright, Wilson M. Hudson, and Allen Maxwell, (Texas
Folklore Society Publications, 26. Dallas: Southern
Methodist University Press, 1954), pp. 223-229, where
they are described as having been "noted among the
Mexican population of Austin during the course of a
year's time" (p. 223).
Vásquez, Librado Keno, and
María Enriqueta Vásquez. Regional
Dictionary of Chicano Slang. Austin: Jenkins,
1975.
"Proverbs and Sayings
(Dichos)," pages 88-90, lists 69 items in random
order without definition or translation. Sources are not
indicated. The introductory paragraph in English is
garbled and the collection as a whole is marred by
numerous errors of transcription and orthography, as well
as by the use of a type font lacking in diacritical marks
of any sort.
Wesley, Howard D. "Ranchero sayings of
the border," in Puro mexicano, edited by J. Frank
Dobie, pp. 211-220. Texas Folklore Society Publications, 12.
Austin: Texas Folklore Society, 1935.
Some 50 proverbs and phrases
(including 30 true proverbs) are interwoven into an
informal text with a roughly thematic organization. An
English translation, usually literal, is given for each
item along with an interpretation or explanation and
sometimes a description of context. Although sources are
not specified, the material appears to be drawn from oral
sources and in part from the author's personal in-context
observation. Despite some stereotyping and the use of
such labels as "crude" and "rustic," the study offers
interesting material in the form of tales or anecdotes
associated with particular sayings as well as some
instances of actual contexts in which the proverbs were
used. MEXICO
This is the largest Mexican
collection available to date. It contains approximately
12,500 items arranged alphabetically by first word,
including a wide variety of materials not generally found
in other sources, such as piropos or traditional
compliments, rhymed nonsense phrases, etc. The chief
defect is the lack of any definitions or explanatory
material. The author implies (p. 17) that he has drawn in
part on oral sources but states that published sources
have supplied much material (p. 7).
Rubio, Darío. Refranes,
proverbios, y dichos y dicharachos mejicanos. 2 vols.
2nd ed. Mexico City: A.P. Márquez, 1940.
This standard reference work
for Mexican proverbs offers some 2,400 proverbs and
phrases, each with an interpretation and often an
explanation of its "origin." The author has attempted to
limit his compilation to "genuinely Mexican" proverbs and
variants, eliminating all those known to be derived from
Peninsular Spain (a number of pan-Hispanic items are,
however, included, a consequence of limited comparative
sources). Some comparative references are supplied for
items that are found in Spanish collections in a form
differing from that used in Mexico. The sources of the
proverbs that make up the compilation are not specified.
Arrangement is alphabetical by fist word.
Santamaría, Francisco J. Diccionario de mejicanismos. 2nd ed. Mexico City:
Porrúa, 1974.
This large dictionary of
Mexican regional speech includes many proverbs and
phrases, usually listed under the principal noun they
contain. Many of the items listed are pan-Hispanic in
distribution. The work is highly useful also as a source
of definitions of words of Mexican origin or that are
used in Mexico with variant meanings. Comparative
references are included for many items, as well as
quotations from various Mexican literary works.
Shirley L. Arora
Department of Spanish and Portuguese
University of California
Los Angeles, CA 90095-1532
Forum
